TERMINOLOGY OF ECOLOGY part 2

TERMINOLOGY OF ECOLOGY
 Ecological Succession: Vegetation is hardly stable, and thus dynamic, changing over time and space. Although comparatively less evident than vegetation, animal populations, particularly lower forms, also show dynamic character to some extent. Succession is a natural process by which different groups or communities colonize the same area over a period of time in a definite sequence. The succession, which starts from a primitive substratum without any previous living matter, is known as the primary succession, whereas that starting from the previously built up substratum where living matter already existed, is known as the secondary succession. If the existing community, as a result of its reaction with the environment, causes its own replacement, then such a succession is known as autogenic succession but if the replacement of the existing community takes place due to the influence of any external force or condition, then it is called allogenic succession. 
 Climax: In the natural process of succession, one community continues to follow another, until a stage comes when a type of community cannot be displaced under the prevailing environmental conditions. This final, terminal community, that can maintain itself more or less indefinitely in equilibrium with the prevailing environment, is known as the climax community and the stage is said to be the climax.
  Biome: A complex of several types of communities, some in climax stage and others in different stages of succession, maintained more or less similar climatic conditions is known as a biome.
Ecosystem: In a given area, the biotic assemblage of all the organisms, plant as well as animal communities, interacts with its physical environment in such a manner that there is a flow of energy leading to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles within a system, is known as an ecological system or ecosystem. An ecosystem is the whole biotic community in a given area plus its abiotic environment.  
Biosphere: The earth’s living organisms interacting with their physical environment may be considered as a giant ecosystem, which is the largest and most nearly self- sufficient biological system we know, and this is designated as the biosphere or ecosphere. Thus the planet earth along with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere which sustain life is known as biosphere. 
 Standing State: The amount of inorganic substances, such as P, S, C, N, H etc. present at any given time in the environment of an ecosystem, is known as the standing state or standing quality. Standing Crop: The amount of living material, present in a component population at any time, is known as the standing crop, which may be expressed in terms of numbers or weight per unit area. 
 Biomass:  Biomass is the standing crop expressed in terms of weight (i.e. organism mass) of the living matter present. 
 Food Chain: In any ecosystem, various living organisms are arranged in a definite sequence according to their food habits. Plants are producers which are eaten by herbivores, which in turn are eaten by carnivores. This transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is known as a food chain in an ecosystem.
  Food Web: Under natural conditions in the same ecosystem, depending upon the variety of organisms, there generally operate a number of linear food chains at a time. These chains are interlinked with each other at several points. This interlocking pattern of a number of food

chains forms a web-like arrangement known as food-web. 

Read More

TERMINOLOGY OF ECOLOGY part 1

TERMINOLOGY OF ECOLOGY
Species: A species is a natural biological unit tied together by the sharing of a common gene pool. It can be also defined as a uniform interbreeding population spread over time and space. Vegetation: The collective and continuous growth of plants in space is called vegetation. Thus, vegetation is actually the totality of plant growth, including large or small populations of each species intermixed in a region. In other words we may say that vegetation is the sum total of plant population covering a region. 
Flora: Flora is the species content of the region irrespective of the numerical strength of each species. 
 Population: A population is a group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area. 
 Community: A community is a group of population of different species in a given
area. It thus includes all the populations in that area- all plants, all animals and microorganisms. Factor: Any external force, substance or condition that affects organisms in any way, is known as factor. 
Environment: The sum of all factors constitute environment. It thus becomes indeed a complex of so many factors, better referred to as environmental complex.
Habitat: The place, where an organism lives, or the place where one would go to find the particular organism is known as the habitat of that organism. The habitat of an organism actually represents a particular set of environmental conditions suitable for its successful growth.  
Adaptation: Any species puts its efforts to make full use of the available nutrient pool and other environmental conditions prevailing in the area of its growth. It ensures its own protection against adverse conditions of the habitat. This all is accomplished by the development of some characteristics. 
ECAD: Some of the species have more than one kind of populations spread over wide range of habitat conditions. An ecad of a plant species is a population of individuals which although belong to the same genetic stock, but differ markedly in vegetative characters such as size, shape, number of leaves, stems, etc. These variations are simply environmentally induced, and thus are temporary or reversible i.e. one type of ecad may change into another with the change in its habitat.
Ecotype: An ecotype is a population of individuals of a species, which are genetically different. Since different ecotypes are inter-fertile, these are kept under the same taxonomic species. Their variations are permanent and irreversible as these are genetically fixed.  
Eco-tone: Although plant species grow in association with each other in groups as communities in nature, there is hardly distinguishable a point or sharp line of distinction between the two different communities. There is generally a zone of transition, presenting a situation of special ecological interest between two different types of communities, which is known as an eco-tone. 
Life Form: A life form is the sum of the adaptation of the plant to the climate. This view point is considered in the physiognomic method of study of plant communities. Biological Spectrum: The percentage distribution of species among the various life forms of a flora is called the biological spectrum of that place.

Read More

Nitrogen Cycle

 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is required for the manufacturing of all amino acids and nucleic acids; however, the average organism cannot use atmospheric nitrogen for these tasks and as a result is dependent on the nitrogen cycle as a source for its usable nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle begins with nitrogen stored in the atmosphere as N2 or nitrogen stored in the soil as ammonium (NH4+), ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), or nitrate (NO3). Nitrogen is assimilated into living organisms through three stages: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and plant metabolism. Nitrogen fixation is a process which occurs in prokaryotes in which N2 is converted to (NH4+). Atmospheric nitrogen can also undergo nitrogen fixation by lighting and UV radiation and become NO3-. Following nitrogen fixation, nitrification occurs. During nitrification, ammonia is converted into nitrite, and nitrite is converted into nitrate. Nitrification occurs in various bacteria. In the final stage, plants absorb ammonia and nitrate and incorporate it into their metabolic pathways. Once the nitrogen has entered the plant metabolic pathway, it may be transferred to animals when the plant is eaten. Nitrogen is released back into the cycle when denitrifying bacteria convert NO3- into N2 in the process of denitrification, when detritivorous bacteria convert organic compounds back into ammonia in the process of ammonification, or when animals excrete ammonia, urea, or uric acid.
A lot of environmental problems are caused by the disruption of the nitrogen cycle by human activity, some of the problems caused range from the production of troposphere (lower atmospheric) smog to the perturbation of stratospheric ozone and contamination of ground water. An example of one of the problems caused is the formation of greenhouse gas. Like carbon dioxide and water vapor greenhouse gas traps heat near the earth’s surface and destroys the stratospheric ozone. Once that occurs nitrous oxide in the earth’s atmosphere is broken down by UV light into nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide. These two products can reduce the ozone. Nitrogen oxides can be changed back into nitrates and nitrite compounds and recycled back into the earth’s surface.

Read More

Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)

 Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)

• Water is always on the move. Rain falling where you live may have been water in the ocean just days before. And the water you see in a river or stream may have been snow on a high mountaintop.
• Water can be in the atmosphere, on the land, in the ocean, and even underground. It is recycled over and over through the water cycle. In the cycle, water changes state between liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapour).
• Most water vapour gets into the atmosphere by a process called evaporation. This process turns the water that is at the top of the ocean, rivers, and lakes into water vapour in the atmosphere using energy from the Sun. Water vapour can also form from snow and ice through the process of sublimation and can evaporate from plants by a process called transpiration.
• The water vapour rises in the atmosphere and cools, forming tiny water droplets by a process called condensation.  Those water droplets make up clouds. If those tiny water droplets combine with each other they grow larger and eventually become too heavy to stay in the air. Then they fall to the ground as rain, snow, and other types of precipitation.
• Most of the precipitation that falls becomes a part of the ocean or part of rivers, lakes, and streams that eventually lead to the ocean. Some of the snow and ice that falls as precipitation stays at the Earth surface in glaciers and other types of ice. Some of the precipitation seeps into the ground and becomes a part of the groundwater.
• Water stays in certain places longer than others. A drop of water may spend over 3,000 years in the ocean before moving on to another part of the water cycle while a drop of water spends an average of just eight days in the atmosphere before falling back to Earth.

Read More

Constituents of Atom

Constituents of Atom
 An atom consists of three fundamental particles:

(i) Electron: The presence of electrons was discovered by J.J. Thomson. Electrons are negatively charged particles revolving around the nucleus in orbits of fixed energy.

(ii) Proton: The proton was observed by Goldstein in 1896. Protons are positively charged particles resid- ing in the nucleus. 

(iii)Neutron: Neutron was identified by James Chadwick in 1932. These are neutral particles (no charge) residing in the nucleus with protons.

 In addition to the above fundamental particles, some un- common sub-atomic particles have also been postulated: 

(i) Positrons: These are the positive counterpart of the electrons. These were discovered by Anderson in 1932. These are highly unstable and combine with electrons producing γ-rays (energy radiations).
 (ii) Neutrinos and Antineutrinos: These are the par- ticles of small mass and zero charge. These were postulated by Fermi in 1934.

(iii)Pi-mesons (Pions) and µ-mesons (muones) : These particles have a mass intermediate between that of the electron and the proton. The positively and negatively charged mesons were postulated by Yukawa in 1935. Neutral mesons (π) were postulated by Kemmer to account for the binding forces between the nucleons. 

Therefore, an atom, on the whole, is neutral because the no. of protons is equal to the no. of electrons. Almost the entire mass of atom is concentrated in a very small part of its total size. This part is called the nucleus and all the protons and neutrons are embedded in it. Radius of the nucleus is approx. 10-13 cm and that of the  atom is near about 10-8 cm.

Read More

Biology

1.       Cytology : Study of cell structure is called cytology.

2.      Embryology : It is the study of fertilization  and development of a zygote into an embryo, larva or a miniature adult.

3.      Exobiology :  Study of possibility of life in the outer space.

4.      Microbiobiology : It is the study of structure, life cycle and activities of micro-organisms invisible to maked eye.

5.      Pathology : Study of diseases, effects, casual agents, transmission and other activities of pathogens is called pathology.

6.      Eugenics : Study of factors connected with impairment or improvement of a race.

7.       Euthenics :  Study of environmental conditions that contribute to the improvement of   intellect and other traits of human beings.

8.      Euphenics : Treatment of defective heredity through genetic  engineering.

9.       Cryobiology :  It is the study of effects of low temperature on organisms, including their preservation.

10.    Acarology :  Study of ticks and mites.

11.     Actinology : (i) Study of radiation effects (ii) Study of radially symmetrical animals.

12.    Aerobiology :  Study of air borne organisms as well as structure (e,g spores) and their distribution.

13.   Agriology : Comparative study of primitive tribal customs

14.   Agrobiology : Quantitative science of plant life and plant nutrition.

15.   Agrology : Soil  science dealing with production of crops.

16.    Agronomy :  Science of soil management of domesticated animals.

17.     Agrostology :  Study of grasses.

18.    Andrology : Study of male reproductive organs.

19.   Angiology : Study of blood vascular system, including arteries and veins.

20.   Animal Husbandry : Raising and management of domesticated animals.

21.    Anthology (Bessey) : Study of flowers and flowering plants.

22.   Anthropology : Study of origin development and culture of present and past races of humans.

23.   Aphidology : Study of aphids.

24.  Apiculture : Rearing of bees.

25.  Araneology : Study of spiders.

26.  Arboriculture : Cultivation of trees and shrubs.

27.   Arthrology : Study of joints.

28.  Bacteriology (Ehrenberg) : Study of bacteria.

29.  Bioclimatology : Study of climatic effects on biological processes and organisms.

30.  Biometerology : Study of effects of atmospheric changes on living begins.

31.   Biometrics : (Biometry = Biostatistics). Statistical study of biological problems.

32.  Bionics : Ecology.

33.  Biotechnology : Technology connected with employing living beings or their products in industrial processes.

34.  Brylogy : Study of bryophytes.

35.  Cardiology : Study of heart.

36.  Carcinology : (i) Study of crustacea  (ii) Study of cancers or tumours.

37.   Chemotaxonomy : Taxonomy based on chemicals present in organism.

38.  Chirology : Communication system for deaf and mute by sign language.

39.  Chondrology : Study of cartilages.

40. Chorology : Biogeography.

41.   Cnidology : Study of coelentrates.

42.  Conchology : Study of shells.

43.  Coprology  (Scatology) : Study of excrements.

44. Craniology : Study of skulls.

45.  Ctetology : Branch of biology connected with acquired characters.

46. Cytotaxonomy : Classification of organisms based on cellular structure and further, especially on the member of Chromesones.

47.   Dactyology : Communication system as for deaf using signs made of fingers.

Read More

ECOLOGY

The word “Ecology” was coined by a German biologist in
1869 and is derived from the Greek word, “Oikos” meaning
“House”.

 Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the
study of interactions between living organisms and their physical
environment. Both are closely inter-related and they have
continuous interaction so that any change in the environment
has an effect on the living organisms and vice-versa. Any unit
of biosystem that includes all the organisms which function
together (biotic community) in a given area where they interact
with the physical environment is known as ecosystem.

The ecosystem is the functional unit in ecology as it consists
of both the biotic community (living organisms) and the abiotic
environment. The latter has close interaction essential for

maintenance of life processes. The interaction is conducted by
energy flow (solar energy) in the system and cycling of materials
(natural cycles).

From the biological point of view, the ecosystem has the
following constituents:

(i) Inorganic substances (carbon, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, water, etc.) involved in natural cycles.
(ii) Organic compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, humic
substances) etc.
(iii) Air, water and substrate environment including the
climatic regime and other physical factors.
(iv) Producers, autotrophic (i.e., self-sustaining organisms)
green plants that can manufacture food from simple
inorganic substances.
(v) Heterotrophic (i.e., that depend on others for
nourishment) organisms, mainly bacteria, fungi and
animals which live on other organisms or particulate
organic matter.
(vi) Micro-consumers, decomposers, mainly bacteria, fungi
which obtain their energy by breaking down dead tissues
or by absorbing dissolved organic matter, extracted from
plants or other organisms.

 The decomposers release inorganic nutrients that are utilised by producers. They also supply food for macro-consumers or heterotrophic

organisms. 

Bacteria, fungi (and animals) often excrete hormone-like substances that inhibit or stimulate other biotic components of the ecosystem.

Read More

ENVIRONMENT

What is Environment and why do we now notice so

much interest in Environmental Studies in recent years?
Environment is the sum total of all conditions and influences
that affect the development and life of all organisms on earth.
The living organisms vary from the lowest micro-organisms
such as bacteria, virus, fungus, etc. to the highest, including
man. Each organism has its own environment (physical and
biological).
The word “environment” originates from “environ” which
means things that surround. As per definition of the
Environment Protection Act, environment includes all the
physical and biological surroundings and their interactions.
The study of environment or rather environmental
studies is a multi-disciplinary subject which needs knowledge
interest from physical sciences (physics, chemistry,
mathematics), biological sciences (botany, zoology,
microbiology, biochemistry), social sciences, economics,
sociology, education, geography) etc. Obviously,
environmental studies has a broad base, which requires
integrated approach for dealing with the various aspects

Read More

CMD Tricks to Boost Your Internet Speed

CMD Tricks to Boost Your Internet Speed

How to Boost Internet Speed in Command Prompt easy

The method is quite simple and easy
you just need to use some commands that will boost up your internet speed to some extent. 






 simple steps below:

Commands to Execute To Speed Up Internet Using internet speed :

First of all in your windows PC click on Start and Type “cmd” in Search program and files box (right click and select Run as Administrator). 
Now command prompt will appear and in command prompt go to root directly “C:\” by typing “cd C:\“.

Make Your Internet Connection 4G Using Command Prompt

Now you need to execute the below commands to speed up internet in your PC.

#1 Checking the Internet Speed Using Default Gateway Ping

                                                                                       First of all you will need to check the internet speed from the default gateway that your PC had currently connected to and for that firstly you need to find the default gateway address and then checking the connection speed at that IP address.

-> First of all find the default gateway by entering the command ipconfig /all in the command prompt. And there note down the default gateway address.

-> Now you need to ping the connection on default gateway and for that enter the command ping -t <your default gateway address>.

And with this you will see the time periods of the packet thats acknowledgement is received and lesser the time period more is the internet speed. Now our target will be to minimize this time period.

#2 Releasing The Allocated IPs

                                                                                   When your device has connected to the internet connection the IP address are allocated to the devices and the speed got limits to that IP connection and you can release that and can renew it by entering the command:

ipconfig /renew

#3 Flushing The DNS

                                                                                  In most of the operating systems and DNS clients will automatically cache IP addresses and other DNS results and this is done in order to speed up subsequent requests to the same hostname. Sometimes bad results will be cached and therefore need to be cleared from the cache in order for you to communicate with the host correctly which can lead up the slow connection, so better to flush all these DNS. In Windows OS in cmd you need to enter the below command to flush the DNS.: ipconfig/flushdns

#4 Using netsh Interface TCP command

                                                                                There are two types of commands that you need to enter in your command prompt to boost up your internet speed.

“netsh interface tcp set global autotuning=disable“.

 “netsh interface tcp set heuristics disabled”

After entering these commands, you can check your default gateway speed to and also the change in the internet speed that will be quite easily visible to you.

So the above discussion is all about Best CMD Tricks to Boost Your Internet Speed Command Prompt. Make sure after using this trick must try to check you speed using some speed checker online tools. 

Read More

Isostasy

Isostasy  is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density.
This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. When a certain area of Earth's crust reaches the state of isostasy, it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy does not upset equilibrium but instead restores it (a negative feedback). It is generally accepted [1] that Earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways. However, isostasy provides an important 'view' of the processes that are happening in areas that are experiencing vertical movement. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in isostatic equilibrium, which has forced researchers to identify other reasons to explain their topographic heights (in the case of the Himalayas, which are still rising, by proposing that their elevation is being "propped-up" by the force of the impacting Indian plate; the Basin and Range Province of the Western US is another example of a region not in isostatic equilibrium.)
Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle, it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere, particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes such as the Hawaiian Islands.
In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy wherein an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be observed where Earth's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere, which, over geological time, flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments.
The general term 'isostasy' was coined in the year 1889 by the American geologist Clarence Dutton.

x

Read More